Attachment theory, first developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the behaviours infants use to stay close to their caregivers and ensure their survival. Bowlby proposed that actions such as crying, clinging, and seeking proximity to a caregiver are evolutionary mechanisms that enhance an infant’s chances of survival by keeping them close to their primary caregiver. These behaviours form part of what Bowlby called the “attachment behavioural system,” which governs how we form and maintain relationships throughout life. Bowlby believed that the need for attachment is separate from dependency and begins to show clearly in infants around six months old when they start demonstrating anxiety in response to separation from their primary caregiver.
Freud’s theories of attachment were centered on the biological dependence of the child on the mother, which Bowlby and other researchers found too simplistic. Freud’s dualistic view of instincts, including the self-preservation and sexual instincts, could not fully explain the emotional bonds children form with their caregivers. Melanie Klein expanded Freud’s ideas by recognizing an archaic object relation between the child and the mother. Klein emphasized the anxiety that comes from frustration when a child’s vital needs are not met but still did not label this relationship as attachment in the way Bowlby did. Erik Erikson, though not directly aligned with Bowlby, developed psychosocial development stages that highlight how socialization affects the sense of self, which complements attachment theory in explaining behavioural outcomes later in life.
Attachment, Painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, 1829
Freud’s theories of attachment were centered on the biological dependence of the child on the mother, which Bowlby and other researchers found too simplistic. Freud’s dualistic view of instincts, including the self-preservation and sexual instincts, could not fully explain the emotional bonds children form with their caregivers. Melanie Klein expanded Freud’s ideas by recognizing an archaic object relation between the child and the mother. Klein emphasized the anxiety that comes from frustration when a child’s vital needs are not met but still did not label this relationship as attachment in the way Bowlby did. Erik Erikson, though not directly aligned with Bowlby, developed psychosocial development stages that highlight how socialization affects the sense of self, which complements attachment theory in explaining behavioural outcomes later in life.
Red and Blue, Painting by Sayoko Wunsch, 2022.
Schaffer and Emerson’s research on attachment added further depth to the understanding of infant-caregiver relationships by identifying four stages of attachment development. These stages begin with a pre-attachment phase, where infants do not show a specific preference for any one caregiver, and culminate in the formation of multiple attachments with figures like fathers, grandparents, and siblings by around nine months. Their work helped to solidify the notion that infants form emotional bonds with more than one individual, showing that attachment is a more complex process than simply developing a relationship with a primary caregiver.
Mary Ainsworth, a key contributor to attachment theory, conducted the “Strange Situation” study, which led to the identification of three main attachment styles: secure, ambivalent, and avoidant. Secure attachment, the healthiest form, occurs when children feel confident in their caregiver’s return. Ambivalent attachment results from inconsistent caregiver availability, and avoidant attachment arises when caregivers are emotionally unavailable. A fourth style, disorganized attachment, was later added by researchers, reflecting inconsistent behaviours in both children and caregivers. These early attachment styles have been shown to predict future behaviours and relationships.
Despite its popularity, Bowlby’s attachment theory has faced criticism. Some argue that it overemphasizes the influence of early life experiences on a person’s entire life trajectory, with researchers like Dr. Jerome Kagan highlighting social class, temperament, and culture as stronger predictors of future outcomes. Kagan believes attachment theory, while influential, will eventually be overshadowed by other psychological frameworks that account for a broader range of factors. Despite this, attachment theory continues to have a significant impact on the understanding of human development and relationships.